夏普、史密斯與唐納森學校露營教育理念與實踐之研究-兼論其對我國戶外教育之啓示

Abstract

本研究透過文件分析、概念分析及哲學詮釋學之方法探究夏普、史密斯及唐納森學校露營教育理念與實踐情形，及其對我國戶外教育之蘊義。具體而言，本研究主要目的有五：（一）探究夏普、史密斯與唐納森推行美國中小學學校露營教育之時代背景與發展；（二）分析夏普、史密斯與唐納森的學校露營教育理念；（三）探討夏普、史密斯與唐納森推行美國中小學學校露營教育的實例；（四）歸納與評析夏普、史密斯與唐納森的學校露營教育理念及其實踐的特質與相關問題；（五）基於對前述三位推倡者理念與實踐的分析，省思其對我國近年來有關戶外教育相關政策之蘊義，並且研提建構我國童軍戶外學校之原則與方向。 本研究得到以下八點結論：一、1930至1950年代，美國中小學學校露營教育的發展，主要是在當時工業化、都市化的背景下，人需要回歸自然與群居生活；夏普、史密斯與唐納森以進步主義的教育觀點，重新反省組織型露營遊憩取向、體制僵化課程呆板的缺點，強調露營的教育功能，並極力主張由學校辦理露營教育。二、史密斯與唐納森學校露營教育理念師承於夏普，夏普露營教育理念主要是在哥倫比亞大學求學期間，受到杜威、克伯屈及龐錫等新教育學派學者的理念及著作影響；而夏普的露營教育課程設計原則為小團體、去中心化及向戶外自然環境學習，在活動內容的設計上，則以印地安人的題材為基礎，並參考美國童軍活動、基督教青年會及美國露營協會所辦理的露營活動。三、夏普在學校露營教育上，最重要的理念就是，如果在教室裡學習其效果較好，那就在教室裡學習，而如果在營地裡透過直接體驗學習，其效果較好，那就應該在營地中學習。四 、學校露營教育的定義為，學校於學期間，在營地有效使用自然環境所實行的教學活動，它是學校課程的一部份，強調以露營參與者為中心的設計理念，透過學生直接體驗與民主共同生活方式，培養學生健康身體、健全人格、民主團體生活，以及對自然體驗與瞭解，它是學校學科課程的實驗室、生活教育的實踐場以及戶外遊憩的體驗場。五、夏普、史密斯與唐納森所推行的學校露營教育課程方案，重視師資培育，在法令、組織管理及課程教學方面皆有明確依據，對我國學校露營教育理念的擴展以及實施方法均有足供參酌之處。六、主事者、家長的教育理念與推倡者的作為是影響學校露營教育是否能持續推動的重要關鍵。七、美國學校露營教育在自主性課程設計、經費來源、環境保育、師資培育過程、生活移轉問題、課程融入自然環境問題、課程評鑑問題遭到困難與爭辯。八、露營模式的戶外教育課程是融入十二年國民基本教育的可行途徑。 最後，根據本研究發現，分別對教育主管機關、國民中學教師及未來研究三方面，提出建議。In this study, the idea and practice of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping and the implications for Taiwan’s outdoor education were investigated with documentary researich, conceptual analysis and philosophical hermeneutics. In specific terms, this study had five objectives: (1) to investigate the background and development of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s implementation of school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S.; (2) to analyze the idea of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping ; (3) to investigate the cases of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s implementation of school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S.; (4) to organize and critique the characteristics and relevant questions on the idea and practice of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping; (5) based on the analysis of the idea and practice of the three researchers, to reflect on the implications on Taiwan’s outdoor education policies in recent years and to suggest the principles and approaches for the establishment of Taiwan’s outdoor scout school. This study obtained the following eight conclusions: 1. From the 1930s to the 1950s, school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S. developed in a backdrop of industrialization and urbanization and with the need to return to a natural and communal lifestyle. From the perspective of progressive education, Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson reflected on the organized camping and recreation approach and the drawbacks of rigid curricular systems, stressed the educational benefits of camping, and advocated school-organized camping education. Smith and Donaldson’s idea of school camping descended from Sharp’s. Sharp’s philosophy of school camping was mainly influenced by the philosophy and works of education researchers including Dewey, Kilpatrick, and Bonser when he was studying at Columbia University. Sharp’s course design for camping education was based on small groups, decentralization, and learning from the natural environment outdoors. In terms of activities, it was based on American Indian elements with reference to American scout activities and camping activities organized by Young Men’s Christian Association and the American Camp Association. 3. The essence of Sharp’s idea of school camping was that when classroom learning achieves the best results, learn in the classroom, and when campground learning achieves the best results, learn on the camp ground. 4. The definition of school camping is educational activities organized by schools during semesters on campgrounds that effectively utilize the natural environment. It is part of the school curriculum that is designed with a focus on campers and cultivates the healthy physique, wholesome personality, democratic communal living, and understanding of nature of the students via direct experiences and democratic communal living. It is a laboratory for classroom subjects, a place of practice for life education, and a place of experience for outdoor recreation. 5. The school camping course designs implemented by Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson stressed teacher training and had sound basis in laws, organizational management, and teaching, which provide reference for the expansion and practice of the idea of school camping in Taiwan. 6. The education idea of the organizers and the parents and the actions of the advocates are crucial in the continuation of school camping. School camping in the U.S. encountered difficulties and arguments in terms of autonomous course design, funding, environmental preservation, teacher training, life transition, integration of courses into natural environments, and course evaluation. 8. Camping is a feasible way for outdoor education to be incorporated into the 12-Year Compulsory Education.